Monosaccharides -- Structure of Glucose

Sugars are small molecules which belong to the class of carbohydrates. As the name implies, a carbohydrate is a molecule whose molecular formula can be expressed in terms of just carbon and water. For example, glucose has the formula C₆(H₂O)₆ and sucrose (table sugar) has the formula C₆(H₂O)₁₁. More complex carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose. Their formulas can be be expressed as C_n(H₂O)_n-1. We'll look at them in more detail next time.

The difference between a monosaccharide and a disaccharide can be seen in the following example:

A quick glance tells us that a monosaccharide has just one ring, a disaccharide has two, and a polysaccharide has many. Beyond that, though, there's another important structural feature. Look at the disaccharide and focus on the oxygen which links the two rings together. The atom above it is connected to two oxygens, both of which are in ether-type situations. The carbon and these oxygens are in an acetal linkage. (The bonds are heavier and in blue.)

If we look at the corresponding location in the monosaccharide and ask what the functional group might be, we see that it is a hemiacetal. (Here the bonds are heavier and in red.) So, another way to describe the situation is that a monosaccharide has a single ring with a hemiacetal in it, a disaccharide has two rings linked by an acetal functional group, and a polysaccharide has many rings linked by many acetal functional groups. ( Check this last statement against the polysaccharide structure above).

How about the "sugars" we saw last time with just 4 carbons. Why are they monosaccharides when there is no ring? If we consider that the OH group on the bottom carbon could form a hemiacetal with the aldehyde function, then we get a ring, and that structure fits our description of a monosaccharide.

Monosaccharides -- Structure of Glucose

Sugars are small molecules which belong to the class of carbohydrates. As the name implies, a carbohydrate is a molecule whose molecular formula can be expressed in terms of just carbon and water. For example, glucose has the formula C₆(H₂O)₆ and sucrose (table sugar) has the formula C₆(H₂O)₁₁. More complex carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose are polymers of glucose. Their formulas can be be expressed as C_n(H₂O)_n-1. We'll look at them in more detail next time.

The difference between a monosaccharide and a disaccharide can be seen in the following example:

A quick glance tells us that a monosaccharide has just one ring, a disaccharide has two, and a polysaccharide has many. Beyond that, though, there's another important structural feature. Look at the disaccharide and focus on the oxygen which links the two rings together. The atom above it is connected to two oxygens, both of which are in ether-type situations. The carbon and these oxygens are in an acetal linkage. (The bonds are heavier and in blue.)

If we look at the corresponding location in the monosaccharide and ask what the functional group might be, we see that it is a hemiacetal. (Here the bonds are heavier and in red.) So, another way to describe the situation is that a monosaccharide has a single ring with a hemiacetal in it, a disaccharide has two rings linked by an acetal functional group, and a polysaccharide has many rings linked by many acetal functional groups. ( Check this last statement against the polysaccharide structure above).

How about the "sugars" we saw last time with just 4 carbons. Why are they monosaccharides when there is no ring? If we consider that the OH group on the bottom carbon could form a hemiacetal with the aldehyde function, then we get a ring, and that structure fits our description of a monosaccharide.

We'll take a more detailed look at the cyclic and non-cyclic structures of sugars shortly.

There are two parts to photosynthesis:

The light reaction happens in the thylakoid membrane and converts light energy to chemical energy. This chemical reaction must, therefore, take place in the light. Chlorophyll and several other pigments such as beta-carotene are organized in clusters in the thylakoid membrane and are involved in the light reaction. Each of these differently-colored pigments can absorb a slightly different color of light and pass its energy to the central chlorphyll molecule to do photosynthesis. The central part of the chemical structure of a chlorophyll molecule is a porphyrin ring, which consists of several fused rings of carbon and nitrogen with a magnesium ion in the center.

The energy harvested via the light reaction is stored by forming a chemical called ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a compound used by cells for energy storage. This chemical is made of the nucleotide adenine bonded to a ribose sugar, and that is bonded to three phosphate groups. This molecule is very similar to the building blocks for our DNA.

The dark reaction takes place in the stroma within the chloroplast, and converts CO₂ to sugar. This reaction doesn't directly need light in order to occur, but it does need the products of the light reaction (ATP and another chemical called NADPH). The dark reaction involves a cycle called the Calvin cycle in which CO₂ and energy from ATP are used to form sugar. Actually, notice that the first product of photosynthesis is a three-carbon compound called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Almost immediately, two of these join to form a glucose molecule.

Most plants put CO₂ directly into the Calvin cycle. Thus the first stable organic compound formed is the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Since that molecule contains three carbon atoms, these plants are called C₃ plants. For all plants, hot summer weather increases the amount of water that evaporates from the plant. Plants lessen the amount of water that evaporates by keeping their stomates closed during hot, dry weather. Unfortunately, this means that once the CO₂ in their leaves reaches a low level, they must stop doing photosynthesis. Even if there is a tiny bit of CO₂ left, the enzymes used to grab it and put it into the Calvin cycle just don't have enough CO₂ to use. Typically the grass in our yards just turns brown and goes dormant. Some plants like crabgrass, corn, and sugar cane have a special modification to conserve water. These plants capture CO₂ in a different way: they do an extra step first, before doing the Calvin cycle. These plants have a special enzyme that can work better, even at very low CO₂ levels, to grab CO₂ and turn it first into oxaloacetate, which contains four carbons. Thus, these plants are called C₄ plants. The CO₂ is then released from the oxaloacetate and put into the Calvin cycle. This is why crabgrass can stay green and keep growing when all the rest of your grass is dried up and brown.

Basic of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only light energy, CO₂, and H₂O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts,specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs in stems, etc. The parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundle(s) (veins), and the stomates. The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts, thus photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the rest of the leaf. The stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for air exchange: they let CO₂ in and O₂ out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant's transportation system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells have chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs.

As you hopefully recall, the parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids stacked ingrana. The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids.

Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green light which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making chlorophyll appear green. However, it is the energy from the red and blue light that are absorbed that is, thereby, able to be used to do photosynthesis. The green light we can see is not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and thus cannot be used to do photosynthesis.

The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O (+ light energy) C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. This is the source of the O₂ we breathe, and thus, a significant factor in the concerns about deforestation.

INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in photosynthesis.

It's all powered by the sun!
All those plants and animals - swooping, running, hunting, growing, flying, swimming, sneaking, eating, sniffing, digging, buzzing, chirping, biting, stinging, reproducing, chewing, licking...well, you get the idea....

It's the Mysterious Everythingflowing through it all, through every single one of us! It comes into the food chain as radiant energy from the sun, makes everything happen, get's "used up", and goes out. (The energy doesn't really get used up, it just turns into a form of energy that most living organisms can't use for food - heat.)

This power for life (and everything else), that we call energy, flows into the food chain through our friends the busy plants. The plants do something with that seemingly nothingless energy that seems miraculous. They turn it into food. This is very nice of the plants because animals can't eat sunshine. They can only eat plants or each other.

Information About Bacteria

Bacteria are among the oldest living organisms on Earth, and are very small. Because the bacteria structure is so minute, it can only be seen through a microscope. Bacteria is commonly found in the ground, water and in other living organisms. While some types of bacteria can cause diseases and become harmful to the environment, animals and humans, others offer benefits that we likely could not live without.

Some types of bacteria can attack plants, causing diseases like leaf spot and fireblight.

In human hosts, certain types of bacteria can cause tetanus, pneumonia, syphilis, tuberculosis and other illnesses. As long as the host is not infected with antibiotic resistant bacteria, they can be treated with antibiotics, which kill bacteria or at least hamper their growth. Antiseptics, sterilization and disinfectants can help prevent contamination and risk of infection from bacteria.

The term “friendly bacteria” is used to describe the types of bacteria that offer some benefit. Not only does bacteria help produce the food we eat and keeps the soil fertile, it also helps us digest our food. Bacteria in our digestive system help to convert milk protein into lactic acid and inhibit the growth of potentially harmful bacteria.

Chromosome

A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. A chromosome is a single piece of DNA that contains many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek due to their property of being stained very strongly by some dyes. Chromosomes vary extensively between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can contain anything from 10,000 to 1,000,000,000 nucleotides in length. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes. In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis results in the classic four-arm structure (pictured to the right).


"Chromosome" is a rather loosely defined term. In prokaryotes, a small circular DNA molecule may be called either a plasmid or a small chromosome. These small circular genomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. The simplest chromosomes are found in viruses: these DNA or RNA molecules are short linear or circular chromosomes that often lack any structural proteins.